Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are considered superior to observational studies, and both clinicians and researchers believe that conclusions that stem from observational research are flawed.

• Accounting for bias is a major challenge confronting the use of observational data to gain important insights into real-world treatment effects. • No single study design will satisfy all information ...

Machine learning and artificial intelligence (ML/AI) techniques have advanced considerably across many domains and applications in recent years, and the field of Earth system science is increasingly ...